Translation

=== Taqdimot: Translation.pptx ===

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Translation

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Translation is the process of converting written or spoken text from one language into another language, while preserving the original meaning and tone of the text. It plays a crucial role in facilitating communication and fostering understanding between different linguistic and cultural communities.
However, translating is not an easy undertaking. During translation process, students could find some problems and errors in producing translation products because some students tend to translate the text literally which cannot be avoided.

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Consequently, by implementing literal translation, translation result will be acceptable or not. Thus far, translation problems have been approached almost exclusively from a linguistic point of view. Besides, there are a broader aspect of problems such as textual, pragmatic, cultural and linguistic; textual, pragmatic and semiotic; text linguistic, extra linguistic, pragmatic, instrumental.

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The meaning of Target Language (TL) must be relevant with the Source Language (SL). The output of the translation process must be accurate toward original text. In fact, translation and accuracy have a strong connection and cannot be separated each other. In addition, the success of a translation is measured by how closely it measures up to these ideals. Consequently, the competences of students in translating intended meaning from Source Language SL to TL is decisive for translation successfulness.

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Translation
In general, the process of translating deals with source language (SL) and target language (TL). Translating is a skill that a translator needs to master and understand the source text and put it into the target language, keeping the style when translating, and need to be a competent translator in both foreign languages and mother tongue. Translation is the process changing a text from one language into the target language about the written message or ideas without changing the meaning in the source language.

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There are various methods and techniques used in translation, depending on the nature of the text and the target audience. Translators must possess a deep knowledge of both the source and target languages, as well as a thorough understanding of the cultural nuances and context associated with the text. They also need to have excellent language skills, including grammar, vocabulary, and syntax, in both languages involved in the translation process.

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Translation can be classified into different types, such as literary translation, technical translation, legal translation, and medical translation, among others. Each type requires specialized knowledge and terminology, as well as specific techniques to ensure accuracy and fluency in the translated text.
Technology has greatly impacted the field of translation in recent years. Machine translation tools, such as online translators, have become widely available and can offer quick and convenient translations. However, the accuracy and quality of machine translations are still far from matching the skills and expertise of human translators. Translation is a complex task that requires critical thinking, creativity, and an understanding of the subtleties and nuances of language, which machines are currently unable to replicate.

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Translation Techniques
While translation techniques and translation strategies are interchangeable terms in the title of this entry (as they are in many definitions and classifications), it should be noted that there are proposals according to which the two have different roles in problem-solving, with strategies being part of the process and techniques affecting its result. In that distinction, the term strategy refers to the procedures (whether conscious or unconscious, verbal or non-verbal) translators use to solve the problems that arise when carrying out a translation process with a specific objective in mind. Translators use strategies for comprehension (e.g., distinguishing between main and secondary ideas, establishing conceptual relationships, searching for information) and for reformulation (e.g., paraphrasing, retranslating, speaking out loud, avoiding words very similar to those of the ST).

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Both concepts have a bearing on the result of the translation process, but a translation technique affects a text’s microunits while a translation method affects the entire text. “A translation method is the performance of a given translation process according to a principle determined by the translator’s objective, a global choice applied throughout the text”.
Logically, there is a correlation between a text’s overall result, the translation method employed and the choices made at the micro-unit level, which are reflected in the use of a particular translation technique. Thus, for example, if the philological translation method is chosen (with a view to producing an academic translation), the techniques used most frequently, in keeping with that choice, will include amplification in the form of footnotes or in a glossary.

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A technique is used as a result of being selected from among various options on the basis of the textual context to which it is to be applied, on the basis of all the characteristics and circumstances relevant to the Translation Technique. The conception of translation techniques as an instrument of textual analysis not only separates them from the comparison of languages but also avoids the prescriptive character that has sometimes been attributed to them. Translation techniques are for describing, not prescribing; their function is not to indicate adequate translations for an item but to describe how the item has been translated in its textual context.

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The degree of asymmetry is something translators generally measure in terms of transparency or acceptability (pragmatic, ideological or grammatical), which, in turn, depends on all the aforementioned variables (knowledge of the translation’s intended readership, genre conventions, purpose of the translation, etc.). Thus, a decontextualized appraisal of a translation technique as justified, unjustified or erroneous overrides the principle of functionality and dynamism which should govern translation. A translation technique can only be meaningfully evaluated within a specific communicative context. Translation techniques are therefore neither good nor bad in the abstract, but rather functional and dynamic.

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Translation techniques can be used as an instrument of analysis for describing and comparing the results of translation solutions. They make it possible to compare the options chosen by different translators to translate the same item, be it in different translations into the same language or in translations of a single text into different languages. Additionally, they make it possible to obtain data on the methodological option used in a TT. The translator’s pre-planned global approach to the TT, i.e. their selected translation method, can be identified by analysing their choice of certain techniques over others.

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There are numerous cases of Descriptive Translation Studies research in which translation techniques are used as an instrument of analysis to obtain empirical data to be studied. For instance, as an instrument for analysing the micro-units of texts, translation techniques can be used to:
a) identify the application of a translation norm, e.g., repeated use of the technique of borrowing to comply with the norm of exoticizing the TT;
b) gauge the tendency towards one of the two poles at which a TT can be situated, that of the source language and culture (the pole of adequacy) or that of the target language and culture (the pole of acceptability), or towards either of the strategies of domestication and foreignization as proposed by Venuti;
c) compare translations performed at different times in the past and obtain data from a diachronic perspective, e.g., on the evolution of a word in a culture or in relation to power and ideology, or on the acceptance or rejection of a genre or topic.

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To solve the problems of translation, it is important to understand the translation techniques:
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Adaptation, to change the cultural element that existed in original language and have a similar meaning in target language.
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Amplification, paraphrasing and adding the information from original text that used to make the readers can catch the meaning easily.
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Borrowing, translation technique which borrow the word or expression from source language in target language.

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Calque, translating the word or phrase literally; it can be lexical or structural.
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Compensation, this technique is affected by a stylistic in source language that cannot be applied in the target language.
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Description, to replace a term or expression in source language by giving a description or explanation.
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Discursive creation, to present the equivalent meaning which out of the context in order to attract the readers’ attention.

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Established equivalent is kind of translation techniques that use common term of expression based on dictionary and daily conversation.
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Generalization used a general term to translate a specific term in source language.
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Linguistic amplification, adding the linguistic element in target language.
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Linguistic compression, linguistic elements are combined in the target language.

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Literal translation, to translate the source language by translating word by word based on dictionary without considering the context.
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Modulation applied to revamp the readers’ viewpoint focus or cognitive aspect lexically or structurally linked to the source text.
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Particularization, using a specific and concrete term to translate a general term in target language.
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Reduction, to compress the information in source text into the target text.

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Substitution, altering the element of linguistic into paralinguistic element such as intonations and gestures.
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Transposition, changing the category of grammar. It is the process of category, unit and structure shifting.
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Variation, this technique change, linguistic or paralinguistic elements that influence into social dialect, style and tone changing.

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Legal texts, including contracts, agreements, or legislation, require utmost precision and adherence to legal systems and terminologies. Translating legal documents involves not only linguistic mastery but also a thorough understanding of the legal frameworks and concepts in both the source and target languages. Even a slight mistranslation or misinterpretation can result in significant legal consequency.
Other genres, such as journalism, academic papers, or business texts, also have their own translation challenges. Journalistic texts may involve cultural or political biases that need to be navigated carefully. Academic papers require extensive research and understanding of academic conventions and terminology.

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The term “genre” was borrowed in the early 19th century from French and its literal meaning is ‘a kind’. It is one of the key terms of both literary studies and language studies, in particular in various strands of functional linguistics, such as discourse analysis, Critical Discourse Analysis, Systemic Functional Linguistics, rhetorical studies, the New Rhetoric, English for Specific Purposes and applied linguistics. It reflects long-standing attempts to categorise texts into larger groups and to look for regularities and abstraction above the text level. Examples of genres include: a novel, a poem, a CV, an annual report, a contract, a user manual, a TV commercial.

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They are viewed as ‘flexible macrostructures’ in which obligatory and optional elements occur in a predefined order. Current approaches to genre have shifted focus from a product to a process and associate genres strongly with the social context in which they are used. A genre is thus viewed as a ‘way of acting and interacting linguistically’, a social process which is staged and fulfils a specific goal and as social action which consists in typified ways of acting in recurring social situations.
What these definitions have in common is a strong emphasis on a repeated use of relatively stable, recognisable patterns in a particular discourse community for a specific communicative purpose to realise a social goal. One of the consequences of the conventional use of language in genres is that it sends recognisable signals of being ‘in a genre’ and creates expectations in the discourse community about communicative purpose, form and content.

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Such transformations may be perceived as ‘intralingual translation’ or ‘transgeneric translation’ from more to less specialised genres. Take for example the medicinal product information genre system, which includes the central genre of the summary of product characteristics (SPS) with instructions of use for the discourse community of healthcare professionals; this specialised document is a basis for preparing readable documents, such as a patient information leaflet (PIL) and advertising materials addressed to the lay community of patients.
Some genres within a cluster may control the form and content of other genres or of the entire cluster — they are known as meta-genres, i.e. ‘genres about genres’ and ‘atmospheres surrounding genres’. An example of a meta-genre is the EU Interinstitutional Style Guide, which introduces uniform stylistic rules to be applied by the EU institutions and translators across various genres in the institutional context, e.g. legal acts, reports, monographs.

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The term, “genre”, should be differentiated from the related term, “register”, even though the concepts which these terms denote overlap to a certain degree and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Genre and register are two perspectives on analysing texts. Register may be defined as a functional variety of language associated with a given situation type, but there are differing views on what should be comprised in register analysis as opposed to genre analysis. Within Systemic-Functional Linguistics, register analysis is based on three situational variables: a field (what is going on), tenor (who is taking part) and mode (the role that the language is playing).

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Translation Strategies
There are six strategies of translation are used to translate poetry.
The strategies are:
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Phonemic Translation: In this strategy, the result of translation emphasizes to the sound in the target language by selecting an adequate paraphrase of the meaning. It can be change the letter of the word that will make the translation becomes unnatural or reduce the meaning of the text.

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Literal Translation: Translation strategy which focus on word by word translation. The translator translates the text based on dictionary without regard to the context. Therefore, the product translation will be shift.
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Metrical Translation: In this strategy focus on maintaining the syllables and rhyme of the source text into target language. The syllables must be comparable with the source lyric.
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Verse into Prose Translation: translation strategy that transfers the lyric of source text into prose in target language. This strategy did not change the meaning but the sense of the lyric will be lost.

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Blank Verse Translation: In this strategy, the translators hold the structure of source language and rule out the source lyric.
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Interpretation: A Translation strategy that creates a new version based on translators’ interpretation. The translators still maintain the content of the source lyric but the structure will be changed.

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Translation difficulties related to the thought process of finding an appropriate translation, this is due to individual factors and lack of knowledge about language, context, culture, and translation. Moreover, grammar, structure, vocabulary and writing mechanism are problems of linguistic aspects in translation activities. When translating, the translator should have comprehension to both of the language, context of the text in source and target language. Knowledge about culture, context, process translation and the techniques should be learnt in order to be able to create intended meaning from the original author.

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Understanding of the translation will increase along with facing difficulties in the translation process and the best solution to overcome the problem lies in the translator’s point of view, because each translator has a specific strategy in translating different sources of translation. Furthermore, translators must be able to understand the translation strategy and apply it if there are no matching words in the target language. In addition, the implementation of the translation strategy will help translator to get satisfactory translation results.

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