LEXICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES

=== Taqdimot 1 ===
Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices
=== Taqdimot 2 ===
Plan:
Definition of Lexical Expressive Means.
Interaction of dictionary and contextual logical meanings.
Interaction of primary and derivative logical meanings.
Interaction of logical and emotive meanings.
=== Taqdimot 3 ===
Words in a context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in the dictionaries, what we call contextual meanings. The latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the primary meaning. It is the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual.
=== Taqdimot 4 ===
The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed in dictionaries as a result of long and frequent use of the word other than in its primary meaning. In this case we register a derivative meaning of the word. When we perceive two meanings of the word simultaneously, we deal with a stylistic device in which the two meanings interact.
=== Taqdimot 5 ===
Classification of Lexical Stylistic Devices (SD)
SD are usually classified into:
1. SD based on the interaction of different types of lexical meaning.
A) dictionary and contextual (metaphor, metonymy, irony);
B) primary and derivative (zeugma and pun);
C)logical and emotive (epithet, oxymoron);
D) logical and nominative (antonomasia);
=== Taqdimot 6 ===
Classification of Lexical Stylistic Devices (SD)
2. SD based on the intensification of a feature (simile, hyperbole, periphrasis).
3. SD based on the peculiar use of set expressions (cliches, proverbs, epigram, quotations).
=== Taqdimot 7 ===
The Interaction of Different Types of Lexical Meaning1. Interaction of Dictionary and Contextual Logical Meaning
The relation between dictionary and contextual meanings may be maintained along different lines: on the principle of affinity, on that of proximity, or symbol – referent relations, or on opposition. Thus the stylistic device based on the first principle is metaphor, on the second, metonymy and on the third, irony.
=== Taqdimot 8 ===
A metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts. Metaphor can be embodied in all the meaningful parts of speech, in nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and sometimes even in the auxiliary parts of speech , as in prepositions. Metaphor as any stylistic devices can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors.
e. g. Through the open window the dust danced and was golden.
=== Taqdimot 9 ===
Those which are commonly used in speech and are sometimes fixed in the dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite metaphors or dead metaphors e. g. a flight of fancy, floods of tears.
Trite metaphors are sometimes injected with new vigour, their primary meaning is re-established alongside the new derivative meaning. This is done by supplying the central image created by the metaphor with additional words bearing some reference to the main word.
e. g. Mr. Pickwick bottled up his vengeance and corked it down.
=== Taqdimot 10 ===
The verb «to bottle up» is explained as «to keep in check», to conceal, to restrain, repress. So the metaphor can be hardly felt. But it is revived by the direct meaning of the verb «to cork down». Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged.
Stylistic function of a metaphor is to make the description concrete, to express the individual attitude.
Metonymy is based on a relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on affinity, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent on a proximity.
=== Taqdimot 11 ===
The proximity may be revealed:
1) between the symbol and the thing it denotes;
e.g. The leaves dropped off his imaginary crown of laurel, he turned to the galt and cried bitterly.
2) in the relations between the instrument and the action performed with this instrument;
e.g. His pen is rather sharp.
3) in the relation between the container and the thing it contains;
e.g. He drank one more cup.
4) the concrete is put for the abstract;
e. g. It was a representative gathering (science, politics).
5) a part is put for the whole;
e.g. the crown – king, a hand – worker.
=== Taqdimot 12 ===
Metonymy represents the events of reality in its subjective attitude. Metonymy in many cases is trite.
e.g.:» to earn one’s bread», «to keep one’s mouth shut».
Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings are in opposition to each other. The literal meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning. One thing is said and the other opposite is implied.
e.g. Nice weather, isn’t it? (on a rainy day).
=== Taqdimot 13 ===
Interaction of Primary and Derivative Logical Meanings
There are special SDs which make a word materialize distinct dictionary meanings. They are zeugma and the pun.
Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being on the one hand literal, and on the other, transferred.
e. g. Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room.
=== Taqdimot 14 ===
The pun is another SD based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or a phrase. It is difficult to draw a hard and fast distinction between zeugma and pun. The only reliable distinguishing feature is a structural one: zeugma is the realization of two meanings with the help of a verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects (direct and indirect). The pun is more independent.
Like any SD it must depend on a context. But the context may be of a more expanded character, sometimes even as large as a whole work of emotive prose.
e.g.- Did you miss my lecture ?
– Not at all.
Pun seems to be more varied and resembles zeugma in its humorous effect only.
=== Taqdimot 15 ===
Interjections and Exclamatory Words. Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly and which may be said to exist in language as conventional symbols of human emotions. In traditional grammars the interjection is regarded as a part of speech.
e. g. Oh, where are you going to, all you Big Steamers?
Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meaning
=== Taqdimot 16 ===
The interjection oh, by itself may express various feelings such as regret, despair, disappointment, sorrow, surprise and many others. Interjections can be divided into primary and derivative. Primary interjections are generally devoid of any logical meaning. Interjections such as: Heavens! Good gracious! God knows! Bless me! are exclamatory words generally used as interjections. It must be noted that some adjectives and adverbs can also take on the function of interjections – such as terrible! awfully! great! wonderful! splendid! These adjectives acquire strong emotional colouring and are equal in force to interjections.
=== Taqdimot 17 ===
The epithet is based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or properties.
=== Taqdimot 18 ===
An epithet is a descriptive or nickname term that is added to the name of someone, which becomes a part of common usage. In Greek, the words mean added and are a good rhetorical device when it describes the characters for the readers. Even though modern usage of epithets is taken to be derogatory and literary epithets are a crucial aspect of literature. Now, let’s take a look at the best epithet examples in Literature.
=== Taqdimot 19 ===
Fixed Epithet
In long literary pieces, the author might repeat the epithet, which shows the character and various scenes. A common use of fixed epithet is sobriquet or nickname.
Homer in The Odyssey refers to Odysseus as ‘son of Laertes’, several times and Zeus as ‘kings of kings’.
=== Taqdimot 20 ===
Derogatory Epithet
Disparaging or negative epithet takes on different forms, from homophobic, racial, and ethnic slurs to teasing nicknames. Unlike all euphemisms, derogatory terms are for insulting a group or an opponent without directly mentioning their targeted characteristics.
Another kind of epithet is kenning which is a two-word or compound metaphorical expression replacing a noun. You will generally find it in Old Norse or Old English work.
In Beowulf, you will find many examples of Kenning epithets, including ‘Sail Road’ or ‘wound-sea’
=== Taqdimot 21 ===
Archetypal Epithets in Literature
There are some epithets, which are perfect qualifiers and become archetypes of their own. Irrespective of having their own source materials, these descriptions can be found in various works of literature. In some cases, you will also find them in political movements.
Epithets are of different types and you will find them in many essays. If you take a look at the essays in Top Essay Writing, you will find many epithets. These are professional writers who know how to use epithets in their essays.
=== Taqdimot 22 ===
Star-Crossed Lovers
In the world of Literature, Romeo and Juliet are taken to be star-crossed lovers, the epithet means that they are a couple who are meant to fail or their future is ill-fated.
=== Taqdimot 23 ===
He Who Must Not be Named
At times, an epithet might be silent, for instance, Rumpelstiltskin the nameless gold-spinner. The pressure here is to refrain from taking the name of the antagonist as characters depend on some nontraditional epithets.
A good example of this is the Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling where Voldemort, the dreaded villain of the wizard world is called ‘He Who Must Not Be Named.’
=== Taqdimot 24 ===
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