WHAT IS LEXICOGRAPHY

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What is lexicography
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What is lexicography
Lexicography is the study of lexicons and is divided into two separate but equally important academic disciplines. Lexicography can also be referred to as the practice of making and editing dictionaries and other reference texts. The lexicographer is the one who must research, organize, define, and compile the words in a dictionary. This takes a lot of time and a lot of detail. For each dictionary entry, there is a definition, a pronunciation, a list of synonyms, an example of the word being used, and even sometimes its etymology (or history of the word’s origin). For instance, the word ‘lexicography’ was created in the late 17th century, from the Greek lexicon meaning ‘of words’ and grapho meaning ‘to inscribe, to write.
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What is the aim of lexicography?
One important goal of lexicography is to keep the lexicographic information costs incurred by dictionary users as low as possible. Nielsen suggests relevant aspects for lexicographers to consider when making dictionaries as they all affect the users’ lexicography is the scholarly discipline of analyzing and describing the semantic, impression and actual use of specific dictionaries.
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Profiling the intended users and identifying their needs
Defining the communicative and cognitive functions of the dictionary
Selecting and organizing the components of the dictionary
Choosing the appropriate structures for presenting the data in the dictionary
Selecting collocations, phrases and examples
Practical lexicographic work involves several activities, and the compilation of well-crafted dictionaries requires careful consideration of all or some of the following aspects:
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Choosing lemma forms for each word or part of word to be lemmatized
Defining words
Organizing definitions
Specifying pronunciations of words
Labeling definitions and pronunciations for register and dialect, where appropriate
Selecting equivalents in bi- and multi-lingual dictionaries
Translating collocations, phrases and examples in bi- and multilingual dictionaries
Designing the best way in which users can access the data in printed and electronic dictionaries.
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What is the history of lexicography
The history of lexicography goes back to Old English where its first traces are found in the form of glosses of religious books with interlinear translation from Latin. Regular bilingual English-Latin dictionaries already existed in the 15th century.
The first unilingual English dictionary, explaining words appeared in 1604. It was «A table alphabetical, containing and teaching the true writing and understanding of hard usual English words borrowed from the Hebrew, Greece, Latin or French». This dictionary of 120 pages explaining about 3000 words was compiled by Robert Cawdrey, a schoolmaster. Robert Cawdrey’s Table Alphabetical was the first single-language English dictionary ever published.
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‍What is lexicography in Applied Linguistics?
Lexicography is an area of applied linguistics that focuses on the compilation of dictionaries (practical lexicography) as well as on the description of the various types of relations found in the lexicon (theoretical lexicography). It is neither a new science nor a new craft. Historians generally agree that the first dictionaries can be traced back to the explanations of difficult words inserted into Latin manuscripts in the Middle Ages.
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Many consider lexicography to be divided into two related areas. The act of writing, or editing dictionaries is known as Practical Lexicography. The analysis or description of the vocabulary of a particular language, and the meaning that links certain words to others in a dictionary, is known as Theoretical Lexicography. Theoretical Lexicography is particularly concerned with developing theories regarding the structural and semantic relationships among words in the dictionary. Since it involves theoretical analysis of the lexicon, Theoretical Lexicography is also known as Metalexicography.
It is known that Samuel Johnson was a famous lexicographer.
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In order to better understand lexicography, it may help to know what a lexicon is. Lexicon is a term used in linguistics to indicate the archive of lexemes. Lexemes are abstract, minimal units in a language that link related forms of a word together. For example, the words fly, flight, flew, flying, and so on, are all morphologic variations of the lexeme fly. Fly is the lexeme because it is the base from which these word variations arise.
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One form of lexicography is writing, editing or compiling dictionaries
Lexemes, then, make up a lexicon which is the collection of word meanings in a given language. In a dictionary, the lexemes, sometimes loosely referred to as word stems, are provided first and followed by variations of the base word. As we can see when we read a dictionary, the lexicon also deals with the area of linguistics known as semantics. Semantics refers to the aspects of meaning that are expressed in a language, and of course, in the vocabulary items of which a language is comprised.
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Practical Lexicography is the act of writing or editing dictionaries
In addition to providing data on the morphology and semantics of a lexeme, the dictionary also provides structural information regarding the root of the word, and historical information regarding the evolution of the word into its modern-day form. This is known as etymology.
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The encyclopaedic dictionaries include items of designations such as: names of substances, diseases, plants and animals, institutions, terms of science, some important events in history, geographical and biographical entries.
A linguistic dictionary is a book of words of a language, usually listed alphabetically, with definitions, pronunciations, etymologies and other linguistic information or with their equivalents in another language (or other language).
American dictionaries include scientific, technical, geographical and bibliographical items. British dictionaries devote maximum space to the linguistic properties of words.
Translation (parallel) dictionaries – a list of vocabulary items in one language and their equivalents in (an)other language(s).
Phraseological dictionaries – idiomatic or colloquial phrases, proverbs and other, usually with illustrations.
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Dictionaries of neologisms (neologism – <20 years). The new items are collected from the reading of newspaper, magazines and – rarely – books.
Dictionaries of slang (substandard speech such as vulgarisms, jargonisms, taboo words, curse-words, colloquialisms).
Usage dictionaries (usage problems of all kind – for native speakers: the difference in meaning of synonyms, the proper pronunciation, etc.)
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Dictionaries of word frequency (frequency of occurrence of lexical units in speech for teaching purposes, the basic vocabulary, for the machine translation systems to choose a better – more frequent – variant of a word).
Reverse dictionaries (the entry words are arranged in an alphabetical order starting with the final letter – e.g. for rhyming purpose).
Pronouncing dictionaries (contemporary variation of pronunciation).
There are some subdivisions of lexicography. They are idioms, slangs ,proverbs , collacations, synonims, antonyms, homonyms and others.
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In the English language, collocation refers to a natural combination of words that are closely affiliated with each other. Some examples are «pay attention», «fast food», «make an effort», and «powerful engine». Collocations make it easier to avoid overused or ambiguous words like «very», «nice», or «beautiful», by using a pair of words that fit the context better and that have a more precise meaning. Skilled users of the language can produce effects such as humor by varying the normal patterns of collocation. This approach is especially popular with poets and advertisers.
Collocations may seem natural to native writers and speakers, but are not obvious to non-native English speakers. For instance, the adjective «dark» collocates with «chocolate», but not with tea.
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Some collocations are fixed, or very strong. Many collocations are more open, where several different words might be used to give the same meaning, as an example keep to or stick to the rules. A collocation is a group of two or more words that are almost always put together to create a specific meaning. Using a different combination of words sounds unnatural. Some common collocations are:
to make a mistake, but not to do a mistake
a big decision, but not a large decision
to commit a crime, but not perform a crime
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For a single word, there can be more than one collocation. Let’s take the word rain as an example:
There was heavy rain last night. (adjective + noun)
At sunset, rain began to pour down. (noun + verb)
It rained non-stop all night. (verb + adverb)
A few drops of rain had fallen. (noun + noun)
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If we say Compounds and idioms
Compounds are units of meaning formed with two or more words. The words are usually written separately, but some may have written as one word.
Often the meaning of the compound can be guessed by knowing the meaning of the individual words. It is not always simple to detach collocations and compounds.
car park
post office
narrow minded
shoelaces
teapot
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Idioms are collection of words in a fixed order that have a sense that cannot be guessed by knowing the meaning of the individual vocabularies
English idioms, proverbs, and expressions are an important part of everyday English. They come up all the time in both written and spoken English. Because idioms don’t always make sense literally, you’ll need to familiarize yourself with the meaning and usage of each idiom. That may seem like a lot of work, but learning idioms is fun, especially when you compare English idioms to the idioms in your own language.
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Slang words are specific words or phrases that have a cultural definition that is different from the literal definition. For example, when you “keep your cool,” you are not talking about the temperature. You are saying that you will stay calm under pressure.
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A proverb (from Latin: proverbium) is a simple, traditional saying that expresses a perceived truth based on common sense or experience. Proverbs are often metaphorical and use formulaic language. A proverbial phrase or a proverbial expression is a type of a conventional saying similar to proverbs and transmitted by oral tradition.
Better late than never – it is better to delay something than not doing it at all.
Birds of the same feather flock together – people with common characteristics always end up together.
Out of sight, out of mind – once you lose sight of a thing, you can forget it altogether.
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Etymology is the study of the origin of words and how their form and meaning have changed over time. Etymologically, the English vocabulary consists of native words (30%) and loan (borrowed) words (70%). Borrowings enter the language in two ways: oral speech written speech. Borrowings may be direct or indirect, i.e. through another language. The indirect way – the words philosophy, phenomenon, method, music were borrowed into English from Latin and had earlier come into Latin from Greek.
Etymology of the english words
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By the Indo-European element are meant words of roots common to all or most languages of the Indo-European group. English words of this group denote elementary concepts without which no human communication would be possible. The following classification was given by V.D. Arakin. Family relations: father, mother, brother, son, daughter. Parts of human body: foot, nose, lip, heart. Animals: cow, swine, goose. Plants: tree, corn. Time of day: day, night. Heavenly bodies: sun, moon, star. Numerous adjectives: red, new, glad, sad. The numerals from one to a hundred. Pronouns – personal, demonstrative.
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Borrowings in the English Language. Borrowings are taken over from another language and modified in sounding, spelling, and paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language. Some names of fruits and vegetables came from Latin words such as cherry, pear, plum, pea, beet, pepper. There were numerous scientific and artistic terms like datum, status, phenomenon, philosophy, method, music.
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Additionally, Norman French borrowings: Administrative words: state, government, parliament, council, power, empire. Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison. Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy. Educational terms: pupil, lesson, library, science, pen, pencil. Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this period: e.g. table, plate, saucer, diner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc.
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Moreover, Borrowings from other languages: Spanish: hurricane, tomato, tobacco, chocolate, ranch, sombrero. German: yacht, dog, landscape. Irish: whiskey, phoney, trousers. Japanese: honcho, sushi, kimono, tsunami, Russian: taiga, kaftan, sable, sputnik Arabic: mosque, Muslim, orange, safari, sofa and zero. Hindi: karma, khaki. Italian: libretto, violin, opera, operetta, alarm, piano.
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To conclude, Lexicography is concerned with dictionaries, both with the processes of compilation and with the study of the finished products. The latter is sometimes called “metalexicography” or “dictionary research.” The distinction is also drawn by referring to the compilation of dictionaries as “practical lexicography” and to the study of dictionaries as “theoretical lexicography.” The focus of this bibliography is on theoretical lexicography, but in many publications the distinction is not finely drawn. Dictionaries come in many shapes and sizes, in many forms and formats; and the study of them reflects that diversity.
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