PHRASEOLOGY. PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS

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Phraseology.Phraseological Units
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Phraseology. Phraseological Units
Phraseology
Phraseological Units
Classification of Phraseological Units
The etymological classification of phraseological units
Today, the main goal of our video lesson is to introduce phraseology, to give complete information about the classification of phraseological units by prominent figures, linguists Arnold, Konin, Vinogradov, Smirnitskiy.
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It is natural that we use phrases in our daily life to color human speech. “Tarvuzi qo‘ltig‘idan tushdi”, “Kapalagi uchdi”, these Uzbek expressions are familiar to all of us.  But do you know the following phrases in English? “Hold your horses”,  “Spill the beans” If you want to take a trip to the world of English idioms, phrases, this video lesson is for you!
Phraseology is a branch of linguistics which studies different types of set expressions, which like words name various objects and phenomena. It studies phraseological units of the language and appeared in the 1940s.They exist in the language as ready-made units and they are compiled in special dictionaries.
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Phraseology is a branch of lexicology studying phraseological units
There are different combinations of words. Some of them are free, e.g. to read books (news papers, a letter, etc.) others are fixed, limited in their combinative power, e.g. to go to bed, to make a report. The combinations of words which are fixed (set-expressions) are called phraseological units.
A free combination is a syntactical unit, which consists notional and form words, and in which notional words have the function of independent parts of the sentence. In a phraseological unit words are not independent.
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Phraseological units perform a very important and specific function. They enable one to express one’s thoughts concisely and vividly, and give one’s utterance a semantic depth which would be difficult if not impossible to achieve by other means.
They provide the speaker with ready-made expressions of wisdom, irony, jocularity, etc. which rarely become threadbare with wear. The phraseological units, like no other units of the vocabulary, bear a clear national stamp, providing information about a country’s history, cultural background and character of its people.
Phraseological expressions are united under the terms: set-phrases, idioms, word-groups and phraseological units.
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Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are compiled in special dictionaries. Most Russian scholars use the term «phraseological units» introduced by academician V.V. Vinogradov.
Phraseological units differ from free word-groups semantically and structurally:
1)they convey a single concept and their meaning is idiomatic
2)they are characterized by structural invariability (no word can be substituted for any component of a phraseological unit without destroying its sense (to have a bee in one’s bonnet (not cap or hat);
3) they are not created in speech but used as ready-made units. Unlike a word, a phraseological unit can be divided into separately structured elements and transformed syntactically (On the instant he was thinking how natural and unaffected her manner was now that the ice between them had been broken. (Th. Dreiser, «An American Tragedy’).
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Main features of Phraseological units
Non-motivated word-groups
Cannot be freely made up in speech
Reproduced as ready-made units
Structurally stable
Possess stability of lexical components
Reproduced as single unchangeable collocations
A dark horse – is actually not a horse but a person about whom no one knows anything definite.
A bull in a china shop – a clumsy person.
A white elephant – it is a waste of money because it is completely useless.
The green-eyed monster is jealousy, the image being drawn from othello.
To let the cat out of the bag – to let some secret
Become known.
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Classification of Phraseological Units
Phraseological units are classified in accordance with these 4 criteria: according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.
units.
A. V. Koonin classified phraseological units according to the way they are formed. He pointed out primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological
Primary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group:
a) The most productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological units by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups,
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For instance in cosmic technique we can point out the following phrases:
“launching pad” in its terminological meaning, it is a platform from which rockets, missiles, or satellites are launched. In its transferred meaning –it is a situation, for example a job, which you can use in order to go forward to something better or more important.
b) a large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by transforming their meaning, e.g. “granny farm” -a home where old people are cared for,  “Troyan horse”- a program designed to breach the security of a computer system while ostensibly performing some innocuous function.
c) phraseological units can be formed by means of alliteration, e.g. “a sad
Sack” – boring and never likely to be successfull, “culture vulture” -a person who is very interested in the arts.
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d) they can be formed by means of expressiveness, especially it is characteristic for forming interjections, e.g. “My aunt!”, “Hear, hear!” etc
e) they can be formed by means of distorting a word group, e.g. “odds and ends” was formed from “odd ends”,
f) they can be formed by using archaisms, e.g. “in brown study” means “in gloomy meditation” where both components preserve their archaic meanings,
g) they can be formed by using a sentence in a different sphere of life, e.g. “that cock won’t fight” can be used as a free word-group when it is used in sports (cock fighting ), it becomes a phraseological unit when it is used in everyday life, because it is used metaphorically,

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h) they can be formed when we use some unreal image, e.g.
“to have butterflies in the stomach” – “you have a nervous feeling in your stomach”, “to have green fingers” – if someone has green fingers, they are very good at gardening and their plants grow well, etc.
i) they can be formed by using expressions of writers or polititions in everyday life, e.g. “corridors of power” (Snow), “American dream” (Alby) “locust years” (Churchil), “the winds of change” (Mc Millan).
Secondary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a
phraseological unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit; they are:
1. conversion, e.g. changing the grammar form, e.g. “Make hay while the sun shines” is transferred into a verbal phrase – “to make hay while the sun shines”;
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1. Conversion, e.G. Changing the grammar form, e.G. “Make hay while the sun shines” is transferred into a verbal phrase – “to make hay while the sun shines”;
2. Analogy, e.G. “Curiosity killed the cat” was transferred into “care killed the cat “;
3. Contrast, e.G. “Thin cat” – “a poor person” was formed by contrasting it with “fat cat”;
4. Shortening of proverbs or sayings e.G. From the proverb “you can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear” by means of clipping the middle of it the phraseological unit “to make a sow’s ear” was formed with the meaning “compassionate”.
5. Borrowing phraseological units from other languages, either as translation loans, e.G. “ Living space” (german), “to take the bull by the horns” (latin)
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In the classification proposed by acad. Vinogradov phraseological units are classified according to the semantic principle, and namely to the degree of motivation of meaning, i.e. the relationship between the meaning of the whole unit and the meaning of its components. Three groups are distinguished: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities, phraseological combinations.
1. Phraseological fusions are non-motivated or the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are highly idiomatic and cannot be translated word for word into other languages: to kiss the hare’s foot,to kick the bucket, the king‘s picture. Phraseological fusions are the most idiomatic of all the kinds of phraseological units.
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2. Phraseological unities are motivated through the image expressed in the whole construction, the metaphores on which they are based are transparent: to turn over a new leaf, to dance on a tight rope. In phraseological unities the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorical or metonymical), e.g. to play the first fiddle (to be a leader in something), old salt (experienced sailor) etc. Phraseological unities are often synonyms of words, e.g. to make a clean breast of=to confess; to get on one’s nerves=to irritate.
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3. Phraseological combinations are motivated; one of their components is used in its direct meaning while the other can be used figuratively: bosom friend, to get in touch with.
Phraseological combinations are the least idiomatic of all the kinds of phraseological units. In other words, in phraseological combinations the meaning of the whole can be inferred from the meaning of the components, e.g. to draw a conclusion, lo lend assistance, to make money, to pay attention to.
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Prof. Smirnitsky classifies phraseological units according to the functional principle. Two groups are distinguished: phraseological units and idioms.
Phraseological units are neutral, non-metaphorical when compared to idioms: get up, fall asleep.
Idioms are metaphoric, stylistically coloured: to take the bull by the horns, to beat about the bush, to bark up the wrong tree.
Structurally prof. Smirnitsky distinguishes one-summit (one-member) and many-summit (two-member, three-member, etc.) phraseological units, depending on the number of notional words: against the grain, to carry the day.
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Prof. Koonin’s classification is based on the function of the phraseological unit in communication. Phraseological units are classified into: nominative, nominative-communicative, interjectional, communicative.
1. Nominative phraseological units are units denoting objects, phenomena, actions, states, qualities. They can be:
substantive – a snake in the grass,
adjectival – long in the tooth,
adverbial – out of a blue sky, as quick as a flash;
prepositional – with an eye to, at the head of.
2. Nominative-communicative units contain a verb: to dance on a volcano, to set the Thames on fire.

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3. Interjectional phraseological units express the speaker’s emotions and attitude to things: A pretty kettle of fish!
4. Communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs (An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening; Never say «never») and sayings.
Sayings, unlike provebs, are not evaluative and didactic: That’s another pair of shoes! It’s a small world.
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Phraseological units can be classified as parts of speech (syntactical classification).. This classification was suggested by I. V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:
noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet train, latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Berets.
verb phraseologisms denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log-jam, to get on somebody’s coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out, to make neadunes.
adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull as lead.
adverb phraseological units, such as: with a bump, in the soup, like a dream like a dog with two tails.
preposition phraseological units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of
interjection phraseological units, e.g. “Catch me!”, “Well, I never!” etc.
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In I.V.Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings and quatations, e.g. “The sky is the limit”, “What makes him tick”. Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. “Too many cooks spoil the broth”, while sayings are as a rule non-metaphorical, e.g. “Where there is a will there is a way”
I.Set expressions functioning like nouns (noun phraseologisms):
N+N: maiden name the surname of a woman before she was married’;
N+A: knight errant (the phrase is today applied to any chivalrous man ready to help and protect oppressed and helpless people “мандрівний лицар”).
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N+and+N: lord and master “husband”; all the world and his wife ’everybody; ways and means ’methods of overcoming difficulties’.
A+N: “high tea” an evening meal which combines meat or some similar extra dish with the usual tea’
II. Set expressions functioning like verbs
V+N: to take advantage
V+and+ V: to pick and choose
V+one+N: to give one the bird “to fire smb”
V+subordinate clause: to see how the land lies ’to discover the state of affairs’

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III. Set expressions functioning like adjectives:
A+and+A: high and mighty
(as)+ A+as+N: as old as the hills, as mad as a hatter
IV. Set expressions functioning like adverbs:
A big group containing many different types of units, some of them with a high frequency index, neutral in style and devoid of expressiveness, others expressive.
N+N: tooth and nail
Prep+N: by heart, of course
Adv+prep+ A+N: once in a blue moon
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According to their origin phraseological units are divided into native and borrowed.
Native phraseological units are connected with British realia, traditions, history:
To carry coal to Newcastle
According to Cocker
E. Cocker is the author of a well-known book on arithmetics.
The etymological classification of phraseological units
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To native phraseological units also belong familiar quotations came from works of English literature. A lot of them were borrowed from works by Shakespeare: a fool’s paradise (“Romeo and Juliet”), the green-eyed monster (“Othello”), etc.
A great number of native phraseological units originate from professional terminologies or jargons: one’s last card, the game is uplover lay one’s cards on the table hold all the aces (terms of gambling).
Borrowed phraseological units come from several sources.
A great amount of units were taken from ancient mythology and literature: the apple of discord, the golden age, etc. They are international in their character.
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A lot of phraseologisms were borrowed from different languages
let’s return to our muttons (revenons à nos moutons ) ,
blood and iron (Blut und Eisen),
and from the other variants of the English language (AmE) – a green light, to look like a million dollars, time is money B. Franklin “Advice to a Young Tradesman”).
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As a conclusion we can underline the fact that the term phraseology has come to be used for the whole ensemble of expressions where the meaning of one element is dependent on the other, irrespective of the structure and properties of the unit (V.V Vinogradov); with other authors it denotes only such set expressions which, as distinguished from idioms, do not possess expressiveness or emotional coloring (A.I.
Smirnitskiy), and also vice versa: only those that are imaginative, expressive and emotional (I.V. Arnold). A.V. Koonin lays stress on the structural separateness of the elements in a phraseological unit, on the change of meaning in the whole as compared with its elements taken separately and on a certain minimum stability. Phraseological units give color to any language and it is useful to know them better for understanding and using them correctly and maybe because there is so much idiomaticity in every language, English especially.
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